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C AAC. D AUG. E CCG. B methionine. C leucine. D proline. E arginine. C Termination codons do not code for amino acids. D A single codon may code for more than one amino acid. E The promoter sequence is found on the antisense strand of DNA. B intron strand. C ribophorin. D template strand. E exon strand. C protein is synthesized from RNA in the nucleus. D protein is synthesized from RNA in the cytoplasm.
D the code for a particular amino acid. E the stop signal that does not code for an amino acid. B Each amino acid is coded for by only one codon. C mRNA is read 3 bases at a time and these units are called codons. D There is one initiator codon and it codes for an amino acid. E There are 3 termination codons that do not code for amino acids.
B the triplet of nucleotides found in a gene's sequence. C mRNA language coding for a particular amino acid. D the portion of mRNA that is retained after processing. E the genetic code. A nonsense B codon C anticodon D initiator codon E sense What is the correct order for the following list of steps for initiating translation?
Binding of large ribosomal subunit to mRNA indin with 3. Form ation of covalent bond between methioni ne and second amino acid A 3, 2, 1, 4, 5 B 1, 3, 2, 4, 5 C 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 D 2, 3, 1, 4, 5 E 3, 1, 2, 4, 5 What happens at the P site of a ribosome? B It has the binding site for mRNA. C It contains the enzyme that catalyzes formation of a peptide bond. D It causes the ribosome to attach to the endoplasmic reticulum. E It holds the tRNA with the most recent amino acid that has been added to the polypeptide chain.
B They form a complex with small ribosomal subunits. C They bind to the cap group at the 5' end. D They form a complex with charged tRNA. E They trigger binding of the small ribosomal subunit to AUG. B stimulate translation of a protein. C initiate degradation of an incomplete protein. D keep the protein in the cytosol. E end translation of a protein. B Mitochondrial DNA is only of maternal inheritance. C Flagella is free to move the fertilized egg to the uterus.
D Paternal lineage is more easily traced. E Genetic abnormalities are reduced by one-half. A smooth endoplasmic reticulum B cytosol C Golgi apparatus D rough endoplasmic reticulum E nucleus Which of the following are NOT embedded in the lipid bilayer at all? B small sections of DNA that do not code for protein found within a gene. C small sections of nonsense code found between genes. D sections of newly formed DNA, built on the leading 3' to 5' template strand. E protein fragments released from a proteasome.
B basal lamina. D gap junctions. A tight junctions B hemidesmosomes C basal lamina D gap junctions E desmosomes Which of the following packages proteins into secretory vesicles? A peroxisomes B vacuoles C micelles D lysosomes E proteasomes What are the three components of a nucleotide? A transmembrane protein B paramembrane protein C glycoprotein D steroid receptor E peripheral membrane protein What structure separates the nucleus from the cytosol? A degratin B apoptosin C cachectin D amyloid E ubiquitin Within the nucleus, chromosomes are coiled around which proteins?
Write 'T' if the statement is true and 'F' if the statement is false. Write your answer in the space provided or on a separate sheet of paper. Describe the structures and properties of carbohydrates and lipids, including the different forms of these biomolecules that are present within the body.
The components of membranes are important determinants of their function. What are the components of a membrane and how do those components function?
Describe the non-membrane-bound organelles that are found in cells. Describe the adhesion proteins that function in coupling one cell to the next. They are polar molecules that readily dissolve in water. They are described based on their size as mono-, di-, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are simple sugars composed of six carbons, including glucose, fructose, and galactose, or five carbons, as with ribose and deoxyribose.
Disaccharides are combinations of simple sugars covalently bound together, as with sucrose glucose and fructose and lactose glucose and galactose.
Polysaccharides are formed by many simple sugars bound together covalently, including glycogen and starch. Lipids are a diverse group of molecules primarily containing carbons and hydrogens bound by nonpolar covalent bonds.
Some contain oxygen, while others contain phosphate groups that polarize the molecule. Triglycerides are a form of lipid typically referred to as a fat composed of one glycerol with three fatty acids bound to it. Fatty acids are long carbon chain molecules with a carboxyl group at the end. Triglycerides and fatty acids are both nonpolar and do not readily dissolve in water. Therefore, the molecule is amphipathic with a polar phosphate and nonpolar fatty acids s region.
Eicosanoids are fatty acid derivatives that function in cellular communication. Finally, steroids are betw produced from the precursor cholesterol and act as hormones to communicate between cells. The difference between peptides and proteins is the number of amino acids; peptides are composed of fewer than 50 amino acids, whereas proteins have more than Once formed, there are many chemical interactions involved in the creation of this three-dimensional structure that can be described at different levels.
Primary structure refers to the sequence of amino acids that comprise a particular peptide or protein. Secondary structure involves the folding of that primary structure, produced by hydrogen bonds between amine groups with the oxygen on the carboxyl group of another amino acid.
Tertiary structure is formed by the interaction between residual groups R groups on particular amino acids. Hydrogen bonds can form between polar R groups. Ionic bonds can form between ionized or charged R groups. Van der Waals forces are a temporary intermolecular electrical attraction between the warped electron field of one molecule being slightly more negative, with the warped electron field of another molecule being slightly more positive, whereas covalent bonds can form disulfide bridges between sulfhydryl groups on cysteine residues.
Quaternary structure exists only in proteins with more than one polypeptide chain, like hemoglobin, which contains four separate polypeptide chains. The nitrogenous bases in nucleotides can be from one of two classes: purines a double carbon-nitrogen ring for adenine and guanine or pyrimidines a single carbon-nitrogen ring for cytosine, thymine, and uracil.
Cyclic nucleotides function as intracellular second messengers, like cyclic guanosine monophosphate cGMP and cyclic adenine monophosphate cAMP. Nucleotide polymers function in the storage of genetic information, like deoxyribonucleic acid DNA and ribonucleic acid RNA.
The polymeric strands of DNA and RNA are identified by the 3' and 5' end, with the 3' being the carboxyl end from the carbohydrate and the 5' end containing the phosphate group. Cytosine is always paired with guanine, whereas adenine is always paired with thymine. In RNA, the thymine is replaced with uracil. Phospholipids are the major constituent of membranes. They are amphipathic molecules with polar hydrophilic and nonpolar hydrophobic regions.
The phospholipids form a bilayer with the hydrophilic region exposed to the outside and inside of the cell, and the nonpolar region associated with itself within the core of the phospholipid bilayer. As a consequence, the membrane is a fluid structure with no strong bonds between its components. Cholesterol can also be present within the membrane, which acts to interfere with hydrophobic interactions lining up the molecules within the membrane, thereby decreasing viscosity and increasing membrane fluidity.
Integral membrane proteins are intimately associated with the membrane and cannot be easily removed. Many are transmembrane proteins whose amino acid chain passes through the lipid bilayer multiple times. These transmembrane proteins can function as ion channels and transporters to move ions across the membrane. Other integral membrane proteins are located on the cytosolic or interstitial side of the membrane. Peripheral membrane proteins are more loosely associated with the membranes and, therefore, can be easily removed.
Most are located on the cytosolic side of the membrane and can be associated with the cytoskeleton. Carbohydrates are often located on the extracellular side of the membrane and can act as a protective layer glycocalyx or be involved in cell recognition. The rough portion contains ribosomes that are involved in the translation of proteins.
Those proteins can be secreted from the cell hormones , incorporated into the cell membrane receptors and ion channels , or incorporated into lysosomes. The smooth portion of the endoplasmic reticulum is the site of lipid synthesis and the storage of calcium. The Golgi apparatus is closely associated with the endoplasmic reticulum, processing molecules that were synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum and packaging them into vesicles for delivery to their site of action.
The innermost compartment contains the enzymes of the Krebs cycle. The inner tures membrane contains the components of the electron transport chain. The lysosome is a membrane-bound vesicle that that contains lytic enzymes, which can degrade debris intra or extracellular.
Old organelles can be degraded in this conta manner. Peroxisomes are vesicles, usually smaller than lysosomes, which contain enzymes that degrade amino in acids, alcohols and fatty acids. A byproduct of this degradation is hydrogen peroxide, which is toxic to cells. These structures play an important role in protein synthesis.
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